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The dose of 100 mol sulforaphane and the 7-day treatment duration were determined empirically from previous studies, including a trial demonstrating induction of antioxidant enzymes in nasal lavage cells of human subjects [59] and improved excretion of air pollutants [56]

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The introduction of oxygen, sulfur or nitrogen heterocyclic rings (e.g., tocopherol) linked to the phenolic ring also influences the rate of the antioxidant inhibition reaction, since the final rate will be given by the sum of the inductive factors and steric hindrance in the reaction with ROO radicals

This polarization is characterized by the expression of specific markers, including MHC-II molecules, CD80, and CD86 on the cell surface, alongside a cytokine profile featuring high levels of IL-12 and IL-23, but low IL-10 ( While M1-secreted mediators initially help clear pathogens, persistent M1 activation may lead to cytotoxic tissue injury ( 2.1.2 M2 macrophages Upon induction by Th2 cytokines such as IL-4, IL-13, IL-10, and transforming growth factor- (TGF-), polarized M2 macrophages release anti-inflammatory factors like IL-1, IL-10, and TGF-