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Genetic and pharmacologic studies in mice support this framework, although receptor specificity and downstream signaling remain areas of active investigation

Under high-glucose and high-lipid stress, GLP-1RAs reduce apoptosis and mitigate mitochondrial dysfunction in human microvascular endothelial cells by inhibiting ERK1/2, JNK and p38 pathways, while suppressing caspase-3 and PARP cleavage (167)

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This gives people who prefer to avoid needles a legitimate alternative, though dosing schedules can differ from injectable versions

Research facilities should establish clear protocols for allodynia detection, severity assessment, and treatment initiation