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Therefore, these equations cannot be used in patients with exogenous insulin use (38)

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Similarly, smoking is associated with increased inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction, all of which contribute to IR and T2DM [46]

This enhances mitochondrial function and reduces mitochondrial DNA leakage, resulting in decreased inflammatory cytokine release and improved vascular integrity in the retina ( 2.4.2 ECM remodeling Recent advances in research on eye disease pathogenesis have highlighted the significance of the ECMs standard structure and function